Impact of ICT on Learning

While theoretical arguments can be put forward to provide a strong rationale for the use of

ICT, the only real rationale is based on whether, in practice, it has a positive impact on

learning, the learners, and teachers. This report will now review the impact of ICT on

learning, students, the curriculum, teachers, schools, and school systems. The relevant

connections between these entities are shown in the diagram below that will act as a

theoretical framework for the discussion.

Figure 3 Concept map indicating relationships between learning environment entities and external

entities.

Impact of ICT on Learning & Teaching Page 16 of 73 Dr C. Paul Newhouse

No direct link between learning and the use of ICT!

While it would be convenient to be able to make a direct connection between the use of ICT

and learning outcomes, most reputable educational researchers today would agree that there

will never be a direct link because learning is mediated through the learning environment and

ICT is only one element of that environment. Studies that have tried to identify this mediated

impact of ICT on learning have found it impossible to entirely remove the effects of other

elements of the learning environment.

There is little purpose in attempting to compare the cognitive outcomes when using

computers, with using a textbook or some other resource. Salomon (1994) supports this view

by arguing that it is not possible to study "the impact of computer use in the absence of the

other factors" nor to assume that "one factor impacts outcomes independently of the others"

(p. 80). The educational aim is to embed the computer support in the learning environment

(DeCorte, 1990), rather than to try to isolate its effect on learning. Using computers in

learning is concerned with methods of using the technology to create environments and

learning situations. There have been many decades of solid educational research, not

necessarily related to using computers, on which to base decisions about appropriate

applications of computers to learning. For example, Mevarech and Light (1992) suggest that

the relationships between student characteristics, learning environments, behaviours and

schooling outcomes are crucial and need further research, yet there has been much

research which has considered these relationships in other contexts than educational

computing.

Rieber and Welliver (1989) criticise media comparison studies, claiming that they were of no

value applied to research into the use of educational television and therefore many question

their value to educational computing research. They quote from the report of a 1984 USA

government educational task force which suggested that one of the four important points for

improving the use of educational technology in schools was the “identification of instructional

problems and development of realistic solutions” (p. 22). As a result, they argue that media

selection should be the final step in instructional design, not the first, because “different

learning situations call for different instructional elements and certain media have the ability

to utilize certain features much more readily than other media” (p. 26). They suggest that the

identification of educational problems should be the first step. They cite LOGO as an

example where there was “no systematic plan for incorporating this new thinking technology

into the schools” (p. 26) and as a result, they argue, it failed.

If the aim is to offer new learning opportunities or to improve the way in which current

learning activities are implemented then the overall effectiveness of learning environments

and episodes is of paramount concern, not whether they are more effective with or without

computers. Therefore in implementing computer applications it is necessary to start by

deciding what a student, teacher or school wants to achieve. To achieve these outcomes,

teachers can then rely on long traditions of educational theory, their own experience and

knowledge of the educational situation (e.g. student attributes) to make decisions about what

the learning environment should look like and what inputs into the learning process are

required. Finally, teachers can identify what problems are associated with providing these

environments and inputs and tailor computer and other support to provide solutions. This

approach ends with decisions concerning computer support rather than starting with such

decisions (for an example refer to Campione et al., 1990).

A report from the ImpaCT2 study (Becta, 2002, p. 3) conducted in the UK found that,

There is no consistent relationship between the average amount of ICT use reported

for any subject at a given key stage and its apparent effectiveness in raising standards.

It therefore seems likely that the type of use is all important.

There can be a positive impact

While there is no direct link between using ICT and student learning the weight of evidence

now clearly shows that indirectly there can be a significant positive impact. Over the past 30

years there has been an increasing amount of research conducted to investigate this impact

with increasingly clearer findings of positive impacts when ICT is used appropriately.

On average, students who used computer-based instruction scored at the 64th

percentile on tests of achievement compared to students in the control conditions

without computers who scored at the 50th percentile. (Schacter, 1999)

\West Virginia’s Basic Skills/Computer Education program was more cost effective in

improving student achievement than (1) class size reduction from 35 to 20 students, (2)

increasing instructional time, and (3) cross age tutoring programs. (Mann et al., 1999)

Differences in attainment associated with the greater use of ICT were clearly present in

more than a third of all comparisons made between pupils’ expected and actual scores

… (Becta, 2002)

Given the right conditions for access and use, significant gains in student learning are

recorded with ICT. (Laferrière, Breuleux, & Bracewell, 1999)

Since learning is mediated through the components of the learning environment and

particularly the curriculum (pedagogy and content) therefore it is useful to start with a

consideration of the impact of ICT on the curriculum.

The Learning Environment as Mediator of Learning

We are interested in what effect the computer is likely to have on the classroom environment

and whether it is likely to find a harmonious and useful role in that environment. ICTs

provide the support to extend the possibilities for creating learning environments (Committee

on Developments in the Science of Learning, 2000). The most important entities in

determining a classroom environment are the teachers. In most classrooms it is the

teacher(s) who decides what content is important, directs student learning, assesses student

learning, structures the environment (e.g. rules and routines) and chooses and provides the

materials to be used. However, the student role is also critical.

Teacher/Student Roles

The teacher will always have a role in directing what and how students learn whether this is

by controlling the instruction or providing the learning situations. The students will always

play both passive and active roles in the teaching and learning scenarios. It is suggested

that the balance of control and roles is likely to shift towards student participation with the

use of ICT to support learning processes. This transfer of roles or control often occurs

spontaneously and naturally in a classroom within an activity (Committee on Developments

in the Science of Learning, 2000). Riel (1998, p. 9) concludes that the balance of control

may ultimately not be “under the complete control of the teacher, nor under the complete

control of the learner” with the “inclusion of many people with differing expertise” as ICT is

used to support a learning community.

Teacher as Manager

While computers can be used in a demonstration mode most of the range of computer use

involves computers being used by students. Therefore as indicated earlier this necessitates

a more student-centred approach. A teacher-centred approach could still be adopted

through use of selected demonstration and tutorial applications. To accommodate a

significant role to the computer in the classroom there needs to be a number of changes to

the role of the teacher. How significant these changes are for a teacher depends on what

they perceive to be their current role. The teacher needs to become a catalyst for learning

rather than being the focus. The teacher becomes a learning model for the students not an

expert in everything. The teacher is a facilitator of cooperative learning by involving students

in real problem-solving. In the apprenticeship model, the teacher may use ICT to model an

activity and then scaffold the learner (Committee on Developments in the Science of

Learning, 2000).

Teachers need appropriate communication and management skills. For example, clear

instructions (verbal and written) have to be presented so that most students do not need to

call on the teacher for assistance regularly, appropriate tasks have to be assigned to

individual students, ground rules have to be established for interaction with other students

and computer equipment, and hardware and software have to be made available to students

when they need them.

It is acknowledged that a problem for teachers using computers is evaluating whether

students are engaged and with what. Further, teachers must evaluate student learning

needs in order to provide them with appropriate tasks and software. Problems concerning

evaluation require teachers to spend more time in one-to-one interaction with students and to

have skills in interpreting student output (e.g. spoken, written).

Student Responsibility for Learning

While the teacher’s role in the classroom is fundamentally important to computer-supported

learning, the student’s role is also significant. If the environment is to become more studentcentred

then there is a necessary shift of responsibility for learning away from the teacher

and toward the student. Students need to become more self-directing and motivating and

thus take more responsibility for their own learning. This is not to say that the teacher has no

responsibility. The teacher needs to provide a structure within which students can learn.

This includes providing tasks, asking questions, providing resources, and setting ground

rules. Students themselves can become the experts on particular topics (Riel, 1998).

Innovations involving the use of computers invariably place additional demands on students.

For the students it may represent a new approach to learning in which they have to develop

confidence and competence. It has been noted that there may be significant changes to

their role which are complementary to changes in the teacher’s role. This may require them

to develop skills concerned with taking more responsibility for learning and relying less on the

teacher. They may need to develop skills in making decisions for themselves and with other

students. In addition, practical skills such as the ability to follow instructions presented on

paper, by a teacher or on a computer screen need to be developed.

Students will also need to develop skills in determining and assessing their own learning.

For example, self-directed learning using computers usually implies the use of more visual

forms of instruction and information than verbal. Therefore students need to have increased

levels of comprehension and concentration. Students need to develop skills in recording and

evaluating their findings and progress. With the help of the teacher they need to be able to

interpret their findings and make decisions about directions for learning.

Models of Implementation

It has been noted in the last section that the effectiveness of computer applications is very

much dependent on the manner in which they are implemented. While it is important to have

well designed software, appropriate hardware, and skilled users, all of this is in vain if the

application is poorly implemented in the classroom (Committee on Developments in the

Science of Learning, 2000). Implementation requires integrating the application into the

curriculum so that it is a meaningful experience for students and the management of the

classroom environment, including teacher and student roles and behaviours, computer and

non-computer resources and materials.

Given that an application is appropriate, successful implementation depends on good

planning by the teacher, and appropriate teacher and student behaviour during class time.

Planning needs to entail - integrating the application with other instructional and learning

strategies, preparing support materials, developing strategies for the management of

hardware, software and students (e.g. providing access, timing). Teacher behaviours

include: using the management strategies, monitoring student progress, guiding student

learning, and coping with unforeseen problems. In addition appropriate student attitudes and

behaviours need to be fostered. For example, students may have to work independently and

follow written or screen instructions. Therefore, if the students do not possess the skills to

work independently and follow instructions carefully then it is likely that the implementation

will be ineffective no matter how well planned the activity, or skilled the teacher.

It is important in the long term that teachers develop their own methods and strategies for

implementing appropriate computer applications, however initially teachers find it useful to

follow models based on successful implementation by more experienced teachers.

The Models

A model for implementation is a blueprint based on experience and theory which can be

used to guide the teacher. Any model will reflect in a dynamic way a set of values and

perceptions. Consider three general models for the integration of computer use into the

classroom, with each model representing a different emphasis on the interaction between

students, computer system and teacher.

Whole-Class Model One-to-One Model Group-Work Support Model

These models largely reflect the nature of the interaction between the students and the

computer(s) (Figure 4) but do not necessarily dictate a particular mode. Often the availability

of hardware, software and the design of software may dictate which model is used. In the

whole class model a computer system is used in learning experiences which involve all the

students working as a large group and often this will involve demonstration mode computer

use. It is a teacher-centred model with the emphasis on the teacher controlling any

computer-student interaction. In the one-to-one model the emphasis is on the computerstudent

interaction and therefore it is more student-centred. Typically this involves each

student working individually at a workstation but not necessarily all at the same time. The

group work model implies that students will work in groups of two or more with groups having

access to a workstation. Here the emphasis is on student-student interaction with the

computer system and teacher facilitating this interaction and the completion of group based

tasks. Naturally there are many variations on each general model.

Figure 4 Three general models of interaction for the implementation of computers in classrooms.

Main interaction is shown with double arrows, support interaction shown with thin line

A number of key parameters may be identified in describing the implementation of computer

supported learning environments or activities. Here we define eight distinct implementation

models based on the parameters: location, student/computer (S/C) ratio, method of providing

access to computers, control of computer(s), task direction (by whom), and operating

instructions (strategy for provision).

Table 2

Implementation models for the use of ICT in learning environments.

Model Loc# S/C Ratio Access* Control Task

Direction

Operating

Instructions

1. Whole-Class

'Lock-Step'

Lab 1 or 2 Unlimited Teacher Teacher Demonstration

2. One-to-One

Teacher Control

Lab 1 Unlimited Teacher Teacher or

Computer

Demonstration

or text

3. One-to-One

Student Control

Lab 1 Unlimited Student Student Demonstration,

on-line or text

4. Group-Work

Support

(Laboratory)

Lab 1 comp per

group

Unlimited Students Students Demonstration,

on-line or text

5. Whole-Class

Demonstration

Lab or

Class

Total of 1 None Teacher Teacher Demonstration,

front of class

presentation

6. One-to-One

Rostered

Class > 1 Roster

system

Students Teacher or

student

Demonstration,

on-line, peer

tutoring or text

7. One-to-One Self

Select

Class > 1 selfselecting

queue

Students Teacher or

student

Demonstration,

on-line, peer

tutoring or text

8. Group-Work

Support

(Classroom)

Class < 1 comp

per group

roster, selfselecting

queue

Students Students Demonstration,

on-line, peer

tutoring or text

# Location: Lab implies either going to a laboratory of computers or using enough portable computers.

*Self-selecting queue implies that students go to a computer when there is one available.

Different Roles for Different Environments

The role of the computer within the learning environment concerns the way in which it is used

in the teaching and learning processes. The computer may assist the teacher in instructing,

instruct students, aid student learning or be a tool to complete tasks. The role the computer

plays has implications for the choice of hardware, software and teaching strategies by the

teacher. Also there are implications for both teacher and student roles.

The following will outline the fundamental considerations for the implementation of each

model. The hardware and software requirements are not necessarily dictated by the model

being implemented, rather more related to the mode of computer support (i.e. tutorial,

simulation etc.). Hardware and software requirements are discussed in the next section.

Roles for Computers

Many classification systems have been devised to describe the roles of computers in

learning and teaching. For example, Perkins (1992) proposed five generic categories to

describe the variety of ways in which educational technology can be used in classroom

learning: Information Banks, Symbol Pads, Construction Kits, Phenomenaria, and Task

Managers. He defines Information Banks as resources whose main task is to provide a

source of information about topics. Symbol Pads he defines as resources, such as word

processors calculators and pencils, which are designed to provide construction and

manipulation of symbols. Construction Kits are resources such as Lego and laboratory

apparatus which allow learners to assemble entities. Phenomenaria resources allow

learners to scrutinise and manipulate phenomena (e.g. microscopes). Finally Task

Managers are those resources which set tasks for learners and may also help with the

execution of the tasks and provide feedback. Clearly as a learning resource, computers

have the capability to fulfil all these roles.

Schanks and Cleary (1995) focus on what they call, goal-directed learning. They discuss the

need to develop active learning environments in which students are encouraged to pursue

intrinsically motivating goals which are related to intended learning outcomes. They suggest

that computer software can be used to support this scenario. For example, they created a

simulation, Sickle Cell, of a medical counselling situation which includes a blood laboratory

where the goal is to "identify the clients' gene types" which is related to the intended outcome

of "learn[ing] about red cells and hemoglobin". They recommend a range of software tools to

support goal-directed learning with scenarios.

1) Simulation-Based Learning by Doing Tools

Tools that will enable people to "learn by doing" by placing them within simulated

situations that replicate real world environments.

2) Knowledge Organization and Retrieval Tools

Tools that can help organize the massive amounts of video, textual, and machine

readable data required.

3) Teaching Tools

Tools that will support different teaching methods which are appropriate in different

contexts.

4) Tools to Enhance Thinking

The computer has the power to serve as a real thinking aid by asking pertinent

questions that help the user clarify his thoughts.

5) Interaction Tools

There are many ways to enhance the process of interacting with a computer such as

with natural language processing tools.