Learning environments

Learning environments in schools typically involve one or more adult teachers connected

with a number of students, usually in well defined physical settings. These people interact

and form a variety of relationships, creating what Salomon (1994) calls "a system of

interrelated factors that jointly affect learning in interaction with (but separately from) relevant

individual and cultural differences" (p. 80). This is what Wubbels, Brekelmans, and

Hooymayers (1991) term the “relationship dimension” in learning environments at school.

The learning environment has a physical as well as a relationship dimension. Physically it

may be in a room, full of particular furniture and equipment. Curriculum materials such as

books and videotapes may also be present. The curriculum also has a place in the

relationship dimension of the environment in that the students and teacher(s) are focused on

certain processes and content in the curriculum and have a relationship with that curriculum

and the methodologies that are associated with conveying the curriculum. Students and

teachers may have very different relationships with different components of the curriculum.

The place of computers in learning for the majority of children is most likely to occur in the

classroom and, for an increasing number, at home. Most experts in the field of educational

computing (e.g. Lynch, 1990; Olson, 1988; Rieber, 1994) would characterise computers as

interactive and thus admit them a place within the relationship structures of the classroom

learning environment, not just the physical environment. The majority of school classroom

learning environments that incorporate computers could thus be depicted using the model in

Figure 1.

Traditional Classroom

Environment

Non-Interactive

Technology

Curriculum

Students

Teacher(s)

Physical Features

of Classroom

Computer Systems

Hardware/Software

Figure 1. A model to consider the relationship of computer systems to other elements of the

classroom learning environment.

The Curriculum and Educational Technology

The curriculum is concerned with what is learned and taught and how this learning and

teaching occurs. What is learned/taught includes objectives, content, and learning outcomes

(the knowledge, skills and attitudes that students are intended to demonstrate). The how of

the curriculum concerns teaching/learning methodology, teaching strategies and media

resources.

Most teaching/learning methods and strategies involve the use of some equipment. Some

teaching methods may only include the use of a blackboard and chalk while others may

make use of a television or overhead projector. This equipment and its use within the

curriculum is often referred to as educational technology. Educational technology concerns

the technology that is used to facilitate the teaching/learning process. As such it is included

in the how part of the curriculum. We could consider educational technology as the tools of

the teaching trade, part of the medium used to convey the curriculum. Some of these

technologies involve the use of computers.

There is a two-way relationship between the curriculum and educational technology in that to

some extent they each affect the other. Typically the teacher and other components of the

education system determine what is to be taught and learned and then on this basis the

methodology (including the educational technology) to be used is selected. Thus the

technology used is determined by the intended curriculum. Also part of the context of the

curriculum concerns the role of the teacher, the physical setting and the general pedagogical

views of the teacher and education system. These are likely to affect the technology used.

There have also been a number of instances where the curriculum has been changed due to

changes in technology. In some cases the invention of new technology has added content to

the curriculum (e.g. technology based on electricity). In other cases new technology has

made parts of the content obsolete (e.g. using calculators instead of logarithms for

calculation). And some technologies such as overhead projectors, videos and computers

have led to the development of new methods of learning and teaching which were not

feasible before their introduction. So in many ways technology can be seen to be affecting

the curriculum both in terms of content and methodology.

Already it would appear that the content and objectives of the curriculum are changing to

take account of the role of computers in society. For example, with the use of large database

systems (e.g. the Web on the Internet) it is more important to know how to retrieve and

manipulate information than to remember the information itself. However, in other

applications of computers in the presentation of the curriculum, teachers and students will

need to decide where the curriculum best needs the use of computers and where their use is

inappropriate.

As indicated in Figure 1 computer systems (hardware and software) become involved in the

interaction patterns within the classroom environment. This is shown independently of the

other educational technologies which are non-interactive. While using an overhead projector

does affect the classroom environment in that it takes up space, it requires a screen, a

teacher needs to create transparencies to use on it and students may not like reading them,

there is no two-way interaction as may be the case with a computer system. A computer

system can interact with each student and the teacher differently and can interact with

components of the curriculum in different ways.

The basis of learning environments

The classroom learning environment provides a structure to describe the setting in schools

within which learning is organised and the roles of the teacher and students occur. However,

it does not describe the reasons or purpose behind the construction of any particular

environment. This is dependent on the beliefs and actions of those responsible for setting up

the environment, particularly the underlying pedagogical philosophy of the teacher. There is

little doubt that the pedagogical philosophy to which most ‘Western’ educational leaders and

researchers subscribe is that of constructivism.

Learning - Constructivism

Almost all those who advocate major reforms of schooling, particularly through the use of

computers, have the view that learning needs to be more informed by constructivism (e.g.

Clouse & Nelson, 2000). Often arguments for school reform involve constructivist concepts

such as the need for students to develop higher order thinking skills and the failure of current

schooling methodologies to provide the opportunity (Campione, Brown, & Jay, 1990; Loader

& Nevile, 1991). In the extreme, the technologies of the information age are perceived to be

an irresistible force on education (Mehlinger, 1996),

Constructivism has its roots in the psychology-based traditions going back to Dewey (1966),

Bruner (1962; 1966), Piaget (1970) and Vygotsky (1978). However, more recently this is

supported by biological science-based theory in neuroscience. There is a good discussion of

this convergence of support for constructivism in the report by the Committee on

Developments in the Science of Learning (2000).

What is meant by constructivism? There is no single definition of constructivism (Perkins,

1992; von Glasersfeld, 1992), and the term is often not defined explicitly by the user of the

term. However, there is a common element in the belief that knowledge is constructed out of

personal sets of meanings or conceptual frameworks based on experiences encountered in

relevant environments. People interact with their environment and as a result develop

conceptual frameworks to explain these interactions and assist in negotiating future

interactions. As Perkins (1992) puts it,

Central to the vision of constructivism is the notion of the organism as "active" - not just

responding to stimuli, as in the behaviourist rubric, but engaging, grappling, and

seeking to make sense of things. (p. 49)

Neurologically, this is the result of complex sets of connections being formed between

neurons, these connections being called dendrites (Committee on Developments in the

Science of Learning, 2000).

Pines and West (1986) developed what they call a “sources-of-knowledge” model of learning

based on constructivism, which I have found most helpful. They discriminate between two

sources of knowledge for school children: firstly, knowledge spontaneously acquired from

interactions with the environment; and secondly, knowledge acquired formally through the

intervention of school. These two sources of knowledge are represented as vines in a

metaphor based on the writings of Vygotsky (1978). The former source originates from the

learner and thus is known as the upward growing vine. The latter source is formal knowledge

imposed on students and therefore is known as the downward growing vine. Therefore,

education in schools is concerned with the meeting of these vines that Pines and West

(1986) define as four possible paradigms (congruent, conflict, formal-symbolic, and

spontaneous), based largely on the relative strengths of the existing and imposed

frameworks and the degree to which the frameworks are different.

Figure 2: Schematic of Pines and West ‘vines’ representing the knowledge frameworks imposed by

the curriculum and that spontaneously developed by the individual.

Clearly then both the knowledge frameworks of students (prior knowledge) and of the

knowledge domains relevant to the learning activities must be considered in the integration of

ICT. Many educators have argued that the appropriate use of ICT by students can assist

teachers in determining and catering for the prior knowledge of students. Further, it is

usually also argued that ICT can assist students in engaging cognitively to a greater depth

Impact of ICT on Learning & Teaching Page 9 of 73 Dr C. Paul Newhouse

with knowledge domains. That is students are supported in employing the full range of

thinking skills within authentic contexts. This is often discussed in terms of cognitive

taxonomies such as that provided by Bloom (1964).

Knowledge The learner must recall information (i.e. bring to mind the appropriate

material).

Comprehension The learner understands what is being communicated by making use of

the communication.

Application The learner uses abstractions (e.g. ideas) in particular and concrete

situations.

Analysis The learner can break down a communication into its constituent

elements or parts.

Synthesis The learner puts together elements or parts to form a whole.

Evaluation The learner makes judgments about the value of material or methods for

a given purpose.

Pedagogy and Constructivism

There is often the misguided belief among teachers that constructivism means that all

learning must be entirely by discovery and that the teacher and curriculum materials have no

place. Perkins (1992) describes two constructivist positions on teaching/learning paradigms

as without the information given (WIG) constructivism and beyond the information given

(BIG) constructivism. It is advocated that a blend of both approaches is employed. DeCorte

(1990) discusses this balance of approaches in the context of using computers in schools,

a powerful computer learning environment is characterized by a good balance between

discovery learning and personal exploration on one hand, and systematic instruction

and guidance on the other, always taking into account the individual differences in

abilities, needs, and motivation between students. (p. 74)

It is important to not equate particular sets of teaching strategies with constructivism. One

teacher may choose to employ certain strategies in a manner consistent with her

constructivist notions, while another may employ quite different strategies in a manner that is

equally consistent with his constructivist notions. The educator who believes in

constructivism should be concerned with personal conceptual frameworks, prior knowledge,

students’ understandings, the relationship of formal knowledge to spontaneous frameworks,

and the attitude of the learner to formal knowledge (Osborne & Wittrock, 1985; von

Glasersfeld, 1991).

Vosniadou (1994) argues that a belief in constructivism will determine the type of computer

software used in classrooms and the manner in which computer-use is integrated with the

curriculum and implemented in the classroom. However, this may be a little overstated, as

the fundamental focus for a constructivist starts with the individual student within the context

of the environment in which that student is placed. This focus on the student rather than the

instruction, typically referred to as student-centred learning, underpins the role and tasks of

the teacher.

Once again, a learner-centred approach does not imply a particular set of strategies for a

teacher and therefore does not imply a particular set of applications of ICT to the learning

environment.

Constructivist Learning Environments

In 2000 the U.S.A. Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning addressed the

issue of what should be considered in developing learning environments in their report How

People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. They defined “four interrelated

attributes of learning environments that need cultivation” (p.23).

1. Schools and classrooms must be learner centred. (p. 23)

2. To provide a knowledge-centred classroom environment, attention must be given to

what is taught (information, subject matter), why it is taught (understanding), and

what competence or mastery looks like. (p. 24)

3. Formative assessments – ongoing assessments designed to make students’ thinking

visible to both teachers and students are essential. They permit the teacher to grasp

the students’ preconceptions, understand where the students are in the

“developmental corridor” from informal to formal thinking, and design instruction

accordingly. In the assessment-centred classroom environment, formative

assessments help both teachers and students monitor progress. (p. 24)

4. Learning is influenced in fundamental ways by the context in which it takes place. A

community-centred approach requires the development of norms for the classroom

and school, as well as connections to the outside world, that support core learning

values. (p. 25)

This structure provides an ideal and thereby throws some challenges at education systems.

Some of these challenges may be met with ICT support.

ICT Integration in Learning Environments

A critical component of theories of constructivism is the concept of proximal learning, based

on the work of Vygotsky (1978), which posits that learning takes place by the learner

completing tasks for which support (scaffolding) is initially required. This support may include

a tutor, peer or a technology such as the applications of computers. This has led to the use

the term computer supported learning. Computer supported learning environments are those

in which computers are used to either maintain a learning environment or used to support the

student learner in this Vygotskian sense (DeCorte, 1990; Mevarech & Light, 1992).

Therefore the technology is used to help create the types of learning environments and the

types of support for learning that are known to be ideal, that Glickman (1991) argues have

been ignored or failed to be implement widely in the past.

The aim is to create learning environments centred on students as learners and a belief that

they learn more from what they do and think about rather than from what they are told. If the

aim is to offer new learning opportunities, or to improve the way in which current learning

activities are implemented, then the overall effectiveness of learning environments and

episodes is of paramount concern, not whether they are more effective with or without

computers. It is important that the ever changing nature of computer-based technology not

overshadow the enduring nature of learning and the solid and ever increasing base of

knowledge about learning. This knowledge is not superseded by new technologies; rather, it

can inform the use of new technologies when applied to learning. Therefore, in implementing

computer support for learning it is necessary to start by deciding what a student, teacher or

school wants to achieve. To achieve these outcomes, teachers can then rely on long

traditions of educational theory, their own experience and knowledge of the educational

situation (e.g., student attributes) to make decisions about what the learning environment

should look like, and what inputs into the learning process are required. Finally, teachers can

identify what problems are associated with providing these environments and inputs, and

tailor computer and other support to provide solutions. In essence, the judgement of teachers

and their support structures are relied upon to choose appropriate strategies. This approach

ends with decisions concerning computer support rather than starting with such decisions

(c.f. Campione et al., 1990).

Impact of ICT on Learning & Teaching Page 11 of 73 Dr C. Paul Newhouse

The Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning (2000) suggested five ways to

use ICT to establish and sustain effective learning environments:

1. Real world problems

2. Scaffolding

3. Feedback, reflection and guidance

4. Local and global communities

5. Extending teacher learning

They assert that many aspects of ICT make it easier to create environments that fit the

current understanding of the principles of learning. David Jonassen’s “Designing a

Constructivist Learning Environment” web-site has a section on Tools

(http://tiger.coe.missouri.edu/~jonassen/courses/CLE/) where five ICT tool categories for

designing constructivist learning environments are outlined. These provide theoretical

frameworks to implement the use of computers to support high quality learning

environments.

Connecting with the Local Context

The local Western Australian context is dominated by the implementation of the outcomesbased

Curriculum Framework (CF). It would be hoped that the CF would be well aligned with

contemporary educational thinking and research. Towards the beginning of the CF

document there is a discussion of the assumed principles of learning, teaching and

assessment. There are seven key principles of learning and teaching and five key principles

of assessment (pp. 33-39). These clearly are aligned with the attributes of a constructivist

learning environment as discussed earlier in this review. Appendix Table A explains this

alignment.

Further, in the document, An Introduction to the Curriculum Framework (1998, p. 9) by the

Curriculum Council of Western Australia six statements are provided as evidence guides that

teachers are implementing “An outcomes focus in relation to the curriculum Framework“ (p.

9). These evidence guides also align well with the attributes of a constructivist learning

environment as shown in Appendix Table B.

There is further evidence of the alignment of the Western Australian government schools

context with prevailing international understandings in the teacher support document

produced by the Education Department of WA (1999) titled, Focussing on outcomes:

curriculum, assessment and reporting. The document states that,

In planning for outcomes-focused curriculum provision, teachers, working individually

and in groups, need to review: 1. students achievement; 2. the learning environment; 3.

classroom approaches to curriculum provision; 4. pedagogy; and 5. the school plan.”

(p.11.)

… caters for the developmental needs of students. (p. 12)

… organization and structure of classrooms. (p. 14)

… subject content approach, competencies approach, role performance approach

(p.15)

An outcomes focus requires teachers to become more student centred in their

approach. (p. 16)

These clearly align with a constructivist learning environment view of the process of learning

and teaching and provide the background upon which to build a rationale for the use of ICT

in schools to support these processes.